Syria’s Forgotten Promise: How the Revolution Fell to Opposition’s Failures
Copyright (c) 2026 Romania Occidentala Journal
The Construction of Illiberal Discursive Spaces
Towards the End of His Career – Dimitrie C. Penescu, Romanian Minister to the Nordic Countries (1928-1929). Some Considerations
The article examines Dimitrie C. Penescu’s final diplomatic posting as Romania’s Minister Plenipotentiary to the Nordic countries (1928-1929), accredited in Stockholm, Oslo, Copenhagen, and Helsinki. Building on Romania’s evolving diplomatic network in the region established during WWI, Penescu’s mission aimed to cultivate a favorable image of Romania, intensify trade, and counteract Hungarian propaganda. Despite his short one-year tenure due to financial reasons, Penescu engaged with local officials and press, and notably facilitated the establishment of the Swedish-Romanian Society to foster bilateral understanding. His tenure highlights the challenges and priorities of Romanian diplomacy in the Nordic region during the interwar period.
Romania and Brazil: Geopolitical Convergences Amid the Fragmentation of Multipolarity
This article explores the evolving geopolitical relationship between Brazil and Romania within the context of a fragmented multipolar order. Drawing on theories of structural power and critical geography, it analyzes diplomatic, cultural, and economic convergences between the two nations. Emphasis is placed on the potential of bilateral cooperation in trade, energy, and sustainable development, as well as the role of Romania as a strategic interlocutor between Mercosur and the European Union. The study highlights shared Latin identities and the capacity of regional and middle powers to promote inclusive, cross-regional dialogue in an increasingly complex global landscape.
Russia in the Sahel: A New Front in the Reimagined Cold War
This article analyzes Russia’s growing influence in the Sahel, specifically in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, primarily through the deployment of mercenaries such as the Africa Corps. It argues that Russia leverages existing anti-French sentiment and state fragility, exacerbating insecurity and civilian displacement, which directly contribute to increased migration towards Europe. Russia’s strategic objective is to undermine the European Union’s interests and establish a “new Cold War front”. While successful in shifting regional alliances, Russia’s engagement may be peaking due to logistical challenges. The article concludes by urging Europe to develop a proactive, independent strategy for the region.
Serbia and the Global South: Between Non-alignment Policy and a Multi-alignment Strategy
The Republic of Serbia pursues a foreign policy which stands out among its Balkan neighbors and wider European Union members and candidates. The legacy of socialist Yugoslavia’s leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement, the 1999 NATO bombings, and the 2008 EU-US masterminding of “Kosovo’s unilateral declaration of independence”, in violent breach of international law, play an important role in the strategic posturing of the country, reducing the chances of West-bound bandwagoning. Indeed, since 2014, Belgrade has been negotiating EU membership in a sluggish if not stalled process, while at the same time reinforcing its military neutrality. The struggle to preserve territorial integrity regarding Kosovo has furthermore implied a strong diplomatic leaning in the UN Security Council on the People’s Republic of China and the Russian Federation, including decisions not to harmonize with EU restrictive measures against the two. In the process, Serbia has strengthened its energy cooperation with Russia, elevated the formal status of its bilateral relations with China to the highest level in Europe, and pursued an active diplomatic policy towards the Global South vying for support regarding Kosovo and economic diversification. Such an approach, with its hedging features, has not been welcomed by Brussels. This paper looks at the context of Serbia’s quest to (re)establish close cooperation with the Global South, at the opportunities and also at the limitations of this pursuit.
The Violent Genesis of the Global South: Decolonization, 1945-1979
This article explores the violent genesis of the Global South, focusing on the decolonization of Western colonial empires from 1945 to 1979. It argues that independence was gained through sustained, often brutal, national liberation struggles against unwilling colonial powers. Even “peaceful” transitions occurred within a context of widespread anti-colonial violence. Using cases like Indonesia, Kenya, and Algeria, the text demonstrates persistent post-independence conflict and societal trauma, often exacerbated by Cold War geopolitics and internal fragilities. The Global South’s emergence from violent opposition to imperialism is fundamental to understanding its contemporary landscape.
Assessing State Capacity Post-USAID in Central America: The Case of Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica
Facing drastic U.S. foreign aid cuts in 2025, including the termination of USAID, this research assesses the impact on state capacity in Central America, focusing on Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica. It investigates how the withdrawal of governance funding affects state capacity in the region. Utilizing frameworks of aid dependency and state capacity, complemented by historical-institutional analysis, the study argues that USAID’s exit will probably influence nations in critical areas regarding governance, which had high pre-existing aid dependency and weaker institutions, namely Guatemala and Honduras. These cases reveal systemic vulnerabilities exacerbated by the funding shock. In contrast, Costa Rica, characterized by stronger state capacity and lower aid dependence, shows greater resilience. The findings underscore the critical link between international aid, endogenous state capacity, and deep-rooted institutional histories; highlighting the risks of external funding shocks for fragile states in the region, but with a minor incidence in stronger states of Central America.
The Role of Economic Diplomacy in Facilitating a Balanced Dialogue between the States of the Global North and South
This article explores the pivotal role of economic diplomacy in fostering a balanced dialogue between the Global North and South, aiming to bridge economic imbalances. It emphasizes economic diplomacy’s function across trade negotiations, foreign direct investment attraction, and technology transfer, recognizing these as crucial for developing countries’ growth and global market participation. The text highlights successful initiatives, including the ASEAN-EU partnership, China’s Belt and Road Initiative, and the application of digital tools like Ukraine’s Nazovni platform to facilitate international trade and investment. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of economic diplomacy in advancing sustainable development and addressing global challenges like climate change.
Bilateral Relations between Romania and Azerbaijan as a Bridge for Regional Integration in the Extended Black Sea Area
This article explores the bilateral relations between Romania and Azerbaijan, positioning them as a bridge for regional integration in the extended Black Sea area. Since the proclamation of the independence of Azerbaijan, strong diplomatic bilateral ties led to 58 intergovernmental agreements, including a strategic partnership in 2009. All these make Romania the first EU nation to entertain relations at such level with Azerbaijan. Cooperation deepened across trade, energy, and transport, evidenced by rising trade volumes and the 2022 “Agreement on Strategic Partnership in Green Energy Development and Transmission”. Romania supports Azerbaijan within the Euro-Atlantic organizations and offers a model for EU/NATO integration. These relations foster enhanced EU-Turkic world cooperation and crucial connectivity between Europe and Asia.
Korea and Romania: From Aid Recipients to Strategic Contributors – the Time Has Come to Responsibly Reinvest the Support Once Granted to Us
This article explores the parallel developmental trajectories of South Korea and Romania, both having transitioned from significant aid recipients to active international donors. It details South Korea’s “Miracle of the Han River” and its expanding Official Development Assistance (ODA) contributions, alongside Romania’s economic transformation and institutional reforms facilitated by international support. The text advocates for enhanced bilateral development cooperation, leveraging South Korea’s expertise in rapid economic growth and Romania’s insights into European integration processes. Ultimately, it proposes a joint commitment to strengthening the Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation (GPEDC), aiming to responsibly reinvest past international generosity.
Turkmenistan’s Neutrality and Soft Power: A Model for Peaceful Influence
This article explores Turkmenistan’s permanent neutrality as a central pillar of its soft power strategy and a distinctive model for peaceful influence in contemporary international relations. Declared as a deliberate foreign policy choice post-independence in 1991, Turkmenistan’s neutral status is internationally recognized, enshrined in its Constitution, and was unanimously ratified by the UN General Assembly in 1995. This commitment represents stability, predictability, and trustworthiness, serving as an effective instrument for fostering global peace, cooperation, and sustainable development. Turkmenistan actively leverages its neutrality through platforms like the UN Regional Center for Preventive Diplomacy, contributing to regional conflict prevention, and enhancing global transport and energy security. The UN’s recognition of December 12 as the International Day of Neutrality and the upcoming “International Year of Peace and Trust” in 2025 highlight its enduring global significance.
Scientific Diplomacy as a Mechanism for Mitigating the North–South Technological Divide
This article explores the potential of scientific diplomacy to mitigate the persistent North-South technological divide, a significant source of global inequality and geopolitical tension. It highlights how new disruptive technologies threaten to further widen this gap, emphasizing the urgent need for new international cooperation instruments. The text discusses the evolution of science diplomacy from a traditional cooperative vision focused on shared knowledge and solutions, to a newer competitive paradigm driven by national interests and technological supremacy. It then details the European Union’s pioneering effort to formalize a balanced framework that integrates both approaches, aiming to foster equitable partnerships and build scientific capacity in the Global South.
Peter Apps (2024) Deterring Armageddon: a biography of NATO, London, Wildfire – headline publishing group
The paper delves into Peter Apps’s book, Deterring Armageddon, which provides a thorough historical account of NATO's evolution from its inception in 1949 to its contemporary role in global security. The book examines key events, such as the Berlin Crisis, the establishment of NATO and subsequent Cold War confrontations, exploring how the alliance navigated various geopolitical challenges. It delves into NATO’s defensive strategies, its role in crises like the Korean War and the Cuban Missile Crisis, as well as its involvement in post-Cold War conflicts, such as the Balkan Wars and the Afghanistan campaign. The article emphasizes NATO’s adaptability, focusing on its changing military and diplomatic strategies in response to emerging threats, particularly Russia's actions in Ukraine. Lastly, through a careful analysis of historical documents, speeches and private communications, the article highlights Peter Apps’s contributions who offers valuable insights into NATO's enduring relevance and its contributions to global security.
Copyright (c) 2025 Romania Occidentala Journal
The protocol of Romania’s accession to NATO- the historical significance of a legal document
This article commemorates the 20th anniversary of Romania's accession to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a pivotal achievement in the country's post-1989 foreign policy. Romania’s engagement with NATO evolved through key milestones, including the 1994 Partnership for Peace, the formal request for membership in 1997 and its eventual invitation during the 2002 Prague Summit. Despite initial exclusion, Romania's ongoing reforms facilitated its accession in 2004, marking a significant step in its integration into the Euro-Atlantic community. This article reflects on Romania's NATO accession process and includes the official document of Romania’s accession to NATO.
A political marketplace: NATO and the nuclear non-proliferation agreements
The article explores NATO's role in the formulation and management of nuclear non-proliferation policies, particularly in relation to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Utilizing an eclectic approach informed by Hedley Bull’s English School, the analysis delves into NATO, conceptualized as a political marketplace and a broker fostering coordination among member states. Through historical case studies, including NATO's nuclear arrangements in the 1960s, the NPT negotiations and the Euromissile crisis, the paper illustrates NATO's pivotal role in both moderating the spread of nuclear weapons and integrating non-nuclear states, such as Germany, into the Western security framework. Despite its limitations—such as the failure of the U.S. to achieve supranational control over nuclear policies—NATO’s extended deterrence and nuclear-sharing arrangements have proven instrumental in curbing proliferation. Lastly, while critiques of deterrence's relationship to proliferation remain, NATO’s approach, though imperfect, has contributed significantly to the creation of a non-proliferation regime. In light of recent developments, including Russia's aggression against Ukraine and the weakening of nuclear arms control regimes, NATO’s continued role remains essential in supporting non-proliferation principles, despite ongoing debates about nuclear modernization and burden-sharing.
NATO’s public diplomacy approach in the Black Sea region. A process in the making?
This paper explores NATO’s evolving public diplomacy strategies, with a focus on its efforts in the Black Sea region amidst the Russia-Ukraine conflict. The NATO Public Diplomacy Division (PDD) has increasingly prioritized transparency, countering disinformation and strengthening resilience across member and partner states, utilizing digital platforms to engage diverse audiences, as well as efforts to reinforce collective defense commitments and counter Russian narratives Central to this strategy is NATO 2030, which seeks to address emerging threats such as cyberattacks, climate change and geopolitical competition, while fostering engagement with youth and non-traditional stakeholders. The article highlights the Black Sea region case, where NATO has intensified its outreach through high-profile military exercises, media collaboration and diplomatic initiatives, with Romania serving as a key strategic partner. Additionally, the paper suggests that NATO could enhance its public diplomacy by adopting a "whole-of-society" approach, inspired by Sweden’s model, to engage local communities and strengthen trust, thus improving regional stability and cooperation.
NATO and the Russo-Ukrainian war in the Black Sea
At the 2024 Washington DC Summit, NATO identified the Black Sea and Western Balkans as regions of strategic importance, emphasizing its continued commitment to regional security through enhanced deterrence measures and regional cooperation. This article reflects this commitment by NATO's increased military presence, with deployments on the Eastern Flank and robust intelligence operations, aimed at countering Russian aggression and securing the territories of vulnerable allies such as the Baltic states, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria. Moreover, the article underscores NATO’s success in maintaining the “Open Door” policy, highlighted by the accession of Finland and Sweden, as well as the geopolitical dynamics involving China, which views the Black Sea as a critical area for economic and security interests (particularly through its Belt and Road Initiative). The study concludes that NATO’s long-term strategy in the Black Sea must encompass both military deterrence and diplomatic support for Ukraine, enhance its strategic presence, particularly in maritime and naval capabilities to safeguard freedom of navigation and to secure vital Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs) and ensure the protection of its territorial integrity and sovereignty, while countering Russian disinformation and hybrid threats in the region.
Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine
Security, resilience and strategic communication – Romania’s contribution to the stability of NATO’s Eastern Flank
This article delves into Romania’s strategic role within NATO since its accession in 2004, with particular focus on its position at the alliance’s eastern frontier. It explores the complex geostrategic environment Romania occupies, situated at the intersection of NATO and the European Union’s eastern borders, most notably sharing significant frontiers with Ukraine and Moldova. The study traces Romania’s evolution from a post-Cold War state, initially concerned with its marginalization within the Euro-Atlantic security framework, to a committed NATO member, advocating for the stability of the eastern Flank, considering as well the country’s self-perception as a “provider of stability” in a volatile region, particularly in the context of Russia’s increasingly aggressive actions. In evaluating Romania’s role as a reliable and proactive member state, the study also highlights the incongruencies between Romania’s official discourse and its tangible contributions to regional security, especially in the Black Sea. The paper concludes by offering policy recommendations for strengthening Romania’s influence within NATO, specifically through intensified security cooperation with neighboring states and the implementation of a more coherent communication strategy to address emerging regional threats, including hybrid warfare and disinformation campaigns.
NATO at 75: waves of transformation, growing relevance & challenges
This article examines NATO's strategic evolution over its 75-year history, focusing on its ongoing relevance and adaptability within an increasingly complex global security environment. It analyzes the Alliance’s response to key geopolitical shifts, from its Cold War deterrence role to its post-Cold War transformation and the reemergence of traditional security concerns following Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014. Moreover, it also addresses NATO’s open-door policy, its role in crisis management and its strategic partnerships. Lastly, the paper underscores NATO's capacity to maintain its core mission of collective defense while adapting to new global dynamics and emerging security challenges (e.g.: terrorism, cyber threats, and disruptive technologies), reaffirming thus its enduring strategic relevance in an era marked by both traditional and non-traditional security threats.
The road to NATO: from Iron Curtain to NATO security
This article examines the evolution of NATO enlargement in Central and Eastern Europe, focusing on Romania's accession. It explores the post-Cold War debate over NATO expansion, driven by concerns that without membership, the security of newly liberated countries would be at risk, particularly from potential Russian aggression. Central European leaders, including Poland's Lech Walesa and Czech President Vaclav Havel, advocated for NATO membership, which was initially resisted by the U.S. in favor of a "Russia first" policy. However, as Russia's political trajectory became more uncertain, the U.S. shifted its stance and NATO expansion proceeded, strengthening the security of countries like Romania. Despite this, NATO’s relationship with Russia soured, especially after Russia’s 2014 and 2022 invasions of Ukraine. The paper argues that while NATO enlargement has successfully protected its new members, the ongoing threat posed by Russia underscores the need for Ukraine’s eventual NATO membership and continued alliance expansion for lasting European security.
Lt. General (ret.) Ben Hodges: ’’The Russian full-scale invasion of Ukraine represents a huge wake up call for NATO and a recognition that our Eastern Flank includes the Black Sea, not only the Baltic countries and Poland’’
This interview features Lieutenant General (Retired) Ben Hodges, the former Commanding General of US Army Europe, and current Senior Advisor to Human Rights First. He discusses Romania's vital role in European security, particularly after joining NATO in 2004. According to Hodges, Romania (a front-line state) contributes significantly to Black Sea security with strong armed forces and support for NATO missions. However, amid the Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, he highlights the shift in NATO's defense posture, stressing the need for improved deterrence in the Black Sea. In the light of these affirmations, Hodges calls for Romania to strengthen its defense capabilities, especially in counter-mining and air defense. Lastly, the retired lieutenant also anticipates Ukraine's NATO membership which will enhance European security and advises European leaders to take more responsibility as US presence, in the continent, may decline.
Jamie Shea: ’’NATO was created to provide its member states with security against possible future wars in Europe’’
The article incorporates an interview with professor Jamie Shea (College of Europe) and its view on Romania's evolution as a NATO ally over the past two decades, highlighting its contributions and strategic importance. After joining NATO in 2004, Romania has consistently met defense spending targets, hosted allied forces and contributed to various NATO missions, including those in Afghanistan and Ukraine. Professor Shea highlights Romania's diplomatic and intellectual influence within NATO, through figures like Mircea Geoană and Sorin Ducaru and their work in fostering Romania’s role in the alliance. The article also examines the changing nature of NATO's threats, from the post-Cold War euphoria of peacekeeping to the rise of jihadist terrorism and the return of great power competition, particularly with Russia. Lastly, professor Shea underscores Romania's leadership in supporting Ukraine and ensuring maritime security in the Black Sea, emphasizing the country’s growing significance of NATO's role in the region.
James J. Townsend Jr.: ’’Romania is always the first to raise its hand, to show that is a producer of security, not just a consumer of security’’
This article delves into an interview with James J. Townsend Jr., Senior Advisor in the Scowcroft Center’s Transatlantic Security Initiative, who highlights his experiences and insights on NATO enlargement, U.S. foreign policy and the evolving security dynamics in Europe. Townsend reflects on the challenges and complexities of NATO's eastward expansion during the Clinton Administration, marking the difficult decision-making process in selecting countries like Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic for initial membership. However, he emphasizes the significant contributions of Central and Eastern European nations, particularly Romania, to NATO’s operations, including in Afghanistan and in response to Russia’s aggression. Moreover, he touches on the potential impact of U.S. presidential elections on NATO, the prospects of Ukraine’s future NATO membership and the importance of strengthening military capabilities to deter Russian threats.
Ambassador (Ret.) Philippe Étienne: ’’The accession of Eastern European countries to NATO strengthened the Alliance capacity for collective defense’’
This article presents an interview with Philippe Étienne, who served as France’s Ambassador to the United States (2019-2023) and to Romania (2002-2005), focusing on the evolution of NATO and France’s role within the Alliance. Ambassador Étienne reflects on the post-Cold War period and the enlargement of NATO to include Central and Eastern European countries, emphasizing the critical contributions of nations like Romania to European security. He highlights France’s steadfast support for Romania’s NATO membership, the strengthening of French-Romanian defense cooperation and the shared strategic vision within the context of the war in Ukraine. Lastly, Étienne also discusses NATO’s current challenges, including Russia’s aggression, hybrid threats, and the importance of a stronger European defense pillar, which France champions in its efforts to enhance transatlantic security.
Ambassador Bogdan Mazuru: ’’The strategic partnership with the US was essential for Romania’s accession to NATO’’
This article features an interview with Bogdan Mazuru, Romania’s former Ambassador to NATO (2001-2006), offering an insightful perspective on Romania’s NATO accession process. Mazuru discusses the pivotal role of the U.S.-Romania strategic partnership, which provided critical political support for Romania’s membership and facilitated cooperation in military reforms, regional security and unconventional risks. He outlines the challenges Romania faced during the Membership Action Plan process, particularly in defense management reforms and highlights the country’s collaborative efforts with other aspirant states. Reflecting on significant geopolitical events such as the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia and the September 11 attacks, Mazuru underscores how Romania’s contributions to international missions solidified its place in NATO. He also reflects on the importance of strengthening NATO's presence on its Eastern Flank, particularly in the Black Sea region, in the wake of Russia's actions.
Minister Ioan Mircea Pașcu: ’’Reforming the Romanian armed forces to get them ready for NATO accession represented a priority and a challenge’’
This article features an interview with Ioan Mircea Pașcu, Romania’s Minister of National Defense from 2000 to 2004, who played a pivotal role in Romania’s accession to NATO. Pașcu reflects on the reform processes and challenges faced by Romania's military institutions as the country moved toward membership, particularly the downsizing of the Armed Forces and the implementation of civilian control. Moreover, minister Pașcu assesses Romania’s contributions to NATO’s security, emphasizing its reliable participation in multinational missions and its strategic role in defending NATO’s Eastern Flank. In the context of the ongoing war in Ukraine, the former Minister discusses Romania's evolving role within NATO, the growing threat from Russia and the importance of NATO’s deterrence efforts in the Black Sea region. Lastly, the former minister also anticipates that NATO’s security framework will be further strengthened by the accession of Finland and Sweden, giving as well a prediction on Ukraine’s eventual membership post-conflict.
Foreword by H.E. Luminița Odobescu, Minister of ForeignAffairs of Romania and President of the RomanianDiplomatic Institute
President Emil Constantinescu (1996-2000): ’’Russia is back as a revisionist power pursuing a 19tht-century agenda with a 21th-century tactics and methods’’
This article features an in-depth interview with Emil Constantinescu, former President of Romania, in which he critically analyzes Romania’s foreign policy during the 1990s. It examines Romania's efforts to navigate its NATO and EU aspirations while managing complex relationships with Eastern powers, particularly Russia and Ukraine. Constantinescu reflects on the signing of key treaties, such as those with Ukraine and Russia, and the internal political resistance that shaped these agreements. He discusses Romania’s strategic position as a “gateway” between East and West, highlighting the profound impact of Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, as well as its threat upon the international order.
This article commemorates the life and legacy of Alexandrina Cernov, a distinguished Romanian historian, chronicler and scholar, who passed away on June 5, 2023. Known for her dedicated work on the history of Bukovina, Cernov was an influential figure in Romanian literature and historiography. Her writings, such as The Refuge. 1940-1945 and Fântâna Albă – The Golgotha of the Nation, documented the traumatic experiences of North Bukovinian Romanians, including deportations, massacres and moral oppression under Soviet rule. A respected professor at the National University of Chernivtsi, Cernov shaped generations of scholars, in her role as a vocal advocate for the cultural and historical identity of Bukovina.